Uzbekistan which continent

Uzbekistan is an independent Turkic state. Uzbekistan got its independence in the year , immediately after the disintegration of USSR.

The capital city of Uzbekistan is Tashkent. The government type of Uzbekistan is a presidential republic. Under this political system, the President of the country is head of state as well as head of government.

However, the executive power is exercised by the government. Due to the virtually unsolvable Aral Sea problem, high salinity and contamination of the soil with heavy elements are especially widespread in Karakalpakstan, the region of Uzbekistan adjacent to the Aral Sea.

Heavy use of pesticides and fertilizers for cotton growing further aggravates soil pollution. The earliest Bronze Age colonists of the Tarim Basin were people of Caucasoid physical type who entered probably from the north and west and spoke languages that could be classified as Pre- or Proto-Tocharian, ancestral to the Indo-European Tocharian languages documented later in the Tarim Basin.

These early settlers occupied the northern and eastern parts of the Tarim Basin, where their graves have yielded mummies dated about BC. They participated in a cultural world centered on the eastern steppes of central Eurasia, including the modern northeastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.

At the eastern end of the Tarim Basin, people of Mongoloid physical type began to be buried in cemeteries such as Yanbulaq some centuries later, during the later second or early first millennium BC. About the same time, Iranian-speaking people moved into the Tarim Basin from the steppes to the west.

Their linguistic heritage and perhaps their physical remains are found in the southern and western portions of the Tarim. These three populations interacted, as the linguistic and archaeological evidence reviewed by Mallory and Mair makes clear, and then Turkic people arrived and were added to the mix.

The first people known to inhabit the Central Asian region of modern-day Uzbekistan were Iranian nomads who arrived from the northern grasslands of what is now Kazakhstan sometime in the first millennium BC. These nomads, who spoke Iranian dialects, settled in Central Asia and began to build an extensive irrigation system along the rivers of the region.

At this time, cities such as Bukhoro Bukhara , Samarqand Samarkand and Chash Tashkent began to appear as centers of emerging government and high culture. By the 5th century BC, the Bactrian, Soghdian, and Tokharian states dominated and ruled over the region. As China began to develop its silk trade with the West, Iranian cities took advantage of this commerce by becoming centres of trade. Using an extensive network of cities and rural settlements in the province of Mouwaurannahr a name given the region after the Arab conquest in Uzbekistan, and further east in what is today China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, the Soghdian intermediaries became the wealthiest of these Iranian merchants.

Because of this trade on what became known as the Silk Route, Bukhoro and Samarqand eventually became extremely wealthy cities, and at the times Mawarannahr was the only large and one of the most influential and powerful Persian provinces of antiquity in human history. A conquest was supposedly of little help to Alexander as popular resistance was fierce, causing Alexander's army to be bogged down in the region that became the northern part of Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

For many centuries the region of Uzbekistan was ruled by Persian empires, including the Parthian and Sassanid Empires, as well as by other empires, formed by the Hephthalite and Gokturk peoples. In the 8th century Transoxiana territory between the Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers was conquered by Arabs Ali ibn Sattor , which inherited the region with the Early Renaissance.

Many notable scientists have lived and contributed during the Islamic Golden Age. Among the achievements of the scholars during this period were the development of trigonometry into its modern form simplifying its practical application to calculate the phases of the moon , advances in optics, in astronomy, as well as in poetry, philosophy, art, calligraphy and many other, which have set the foundations for a Muslim Renaissance.

In the 9th — 10th centuries, Transoxiana was included into the Samanid State. The Mongol conquest under Genghis Khan during the 13th century would bring about a change to the region. The conquest and characteristic expansion of the Mongols led to the displacement of some of the Iranian-speaking people of the region, their culture and heritage being superseded by that of the Mongolian-Turkic peoples who came thereafter.

Following the death of Genghis Khan in , his empire was divided among his four sons and his family members. Despite the potential for serious fragmentation, Mongol law of the Mongol Empire maintained orderly succession for several more generations, and control of most of Mawarannahr stayed in the hands of direct descendants of Chagatai Khan, the second son of Genghis Khan.

Orderly succession, prosperity, and internal peace prevailed in the Chaghatai lands, and the Mongol Empire as a whole remained strong and united kingdom. Ulus Batiy, Sattarkhan. In the early 14th century, however, as the empire began to break up into its constituent parts, the Chaghatai territory also was disrupted as the princes of various tribal groups competed for influence.

One tribal chieftain, Timur Tamerlane , emerged from these struggles in the s as the dominant force in Mawarannahr. Although he was not a descendant of Chinggis, Timur became the de facto ruler of Mawarannahr and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia, Iran, Asia Minor, and the southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea. He also invaded Russia, Turkey, Iraq, and placed under his command Iran and India, before dying during an invasion of China in Timur initiated the last flowering of Mawarannahr by gathering in his capital, Samarqand, numerous artisans and scholars from the vast lands he had conquered.

By supporting such people, Timur imbued his empire with a very rich Perso-Islamic culture. During Amir Timur's reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants, a wide range of religious and palatial construction masterpieces were undertaken in Samarqand and other population centres.

Timur also initiated exchange of medical thoughts and patronized physicians, scientists and artists from the neighboring countries like India; his grandson Ulugh Beg was one of the world's first great astronomers. It was during the Timurid dynasty that Turkic, in the form of the Chaghatai dialect, became a literary language in its own right in Mawarannahr, although the Timurids were Persianate in nature. The greatest Chaghataid writer, Ali-Shir Nava'i, was active in the city of Herat, now in northwestern Afghanistan, in the second half of the 15th century.

The Timurid state quickly broke into two halves after the death of Timur. The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Uzbek nomadic tribes living to the north of the Aral Sea. In the Uzbek forces began a wholesale invasion of Mawarannahr. The slave trade in the Khanate of Bukhara became prominent and was firmly established. Estimates from suggest that between 25, and 60, Persian slaves were working only in Bukhara at the time.

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand and spread into Central Asia. By Russians living in Uzbekistan numbered , The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately to the Anglo-Russian Convention of Following the Bolshevik Revolution of , a second, less intensive phase followed.

At the start of the 19th century, there were some 3, kilometres 2, mi separating British India and the outlying regions of Tsarist Russia. Much of the land in between was unmapped. By the beginning of , Central Asia was firmly in the hands of Russia and, despite some early resistance to the Bolsheviks, Uzbekistan and the rest of the Central Asia became a part of the Soviet Union.

A number also fought on the German side. The first elections of the Oliy Majlis Parliament were held under a resolution adopted by the 16th Supreme Soviet in In that year, the Supreme Soviet was replaced by the Oliy Majlis. Since then Uzbekistan has held presidential and parliamentarian elections on regular basis but no real opposition candidates or parties are able to participate.

The third elections for the bicameral member Oliy Majlis — the Legislative Chamber and the member Senate — for five-year terms, were held on December 27, , after the second elections that were held in December — The Oliy Majlis was unicameral up to Its strength increased from 69 deputies members in to in —05 and presently to The executive holds a great deal of power, and the legislature has little power to shape laws. Under terms of a December 27, referendum, Islam Karimov's first term was extended.

Another national referendum was held January 27, to extend the Constitutional Presidential term from 5 years to 7 years. The referendum passed, and Islam Karimov's term was extended by an act of parliament to December Most international observers refused to participate in the process and did not recognize the results, dismissing them as not meeting basic standards.

The referendum also included a plan for a bicameral parliament, consisting of a lower house the Oliy Majlis and an upper house Senate. Members of the lower house are to be "full time" legislators.

Elections for the new bicameral parliament took place on December There is currently a political sitation emerging in Uzbekistan around Islam Karimov and the selection of Akbar Abdullaev as successor. The OSCE limited observation mission concluded that the elections fell significantly short of OSCE commitments and other international standards for democratic elections.

Several political parties have been formed with government approval. Similarly, although multiple media outlets radio, TV, newspaper have been established, these either remain under government control or rarely broach political topics. Independent political parties were allowed to organise, recruit members and hold conventions and press conferences, but they have been denied registration under restrictive registration procedures.

The Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan asserts that "democracy in the Republic of Uzbekistan shall be based upon common human principles, according to which the highest value shall be the human being, his life, freedom, honour, dignity and other inalienable rights. The official position is summarised in a memorandum "The measures taken by the government of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the field of providing and encouraging human rights" and amounts to the following: the government does everything that is in its power to protect and to guarantee the human rights of Uzbekistan's citizens.

Uzbekistan continuously improves its laws and institutions in order to create a more humane society. Over laws regulating the rights and basic freedoms of the people have been passed by the parliament. For instance, an office of Ombudsman was established in On August 2, , President Islam Karimov signed a decree that was to abolish capital punishment in Uzbekistan on January 1, However, non-governmental human rights watchdogs, such as IHF, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, as well as United States Department of State and Council of the European Union define Uzbekistan as "an authoritarian state with limited civil rights" and express profound concern about "wide-scale violation of virtually all basic human rights".

According to the reports, the most widespread violations are torture, arbitrary arrests, and various restrictions of freedoms: of religion, of speech and press, of free association and assembly.

The reports maintain that the violations are most often committed against members of religious organizations, independent journalists, human rights activists and political activists, including members of the banned opposition parties. The civil unrest in Uzbekistan, which resulted in several hundred people being killed, is viewed by many as a landmark event in the history of human rights abuse in Uzbekistan.

The government of Uzbekistan is accused of unlawful termination of human life and of denying its citizens freedom of assembly and freedom of expression. The government vehemently rebuffs the accusations, maintaining that it merely conducted an anti-terrorist operation, exercising only necessary force. In addition, some officials claim that "an information war on Uzbekistan has been declared" and the human rights violations in Andijan are invented by the enemies of Uzbekistan as a convenient pretext for intervention into the country's internal affairs.

Uzbekistan also does not allow Tajiks to teach their youth in their native language. There have been cases of destroying Tajiki Persian-language literary works. Uzbekistan is divided into twelve provinces viloyatlar , singular viloyat , compound noun viloyati e.

Names are given below in the Uzbek language, although numerous variations of the transliterations of each name exist. Uzbekistan has the fourth largest gold deposits in the world.

The country mines 80 tons of gold annually, seventh in the world. Uzbekistan's copper deposits rank tenth in the world and its uranium deposits twelfth. The country's uranium production ranks seventh globally. The Uzbek national gas company, Uzbekneftgas, ranks 11th in the world in natural gas production with an annual output of 60 to 70 billion cubic meters. The country has significant untapped reserves of oil and gas: there are deposits of hydrocarbons in Uzbekistan, including 98 condensate and natural gas deposits and 96 gas condensate deposits.

Along with many Commonwealth of Independent States or CIS economies, Uzbekistan's economy declined during the first years of transition and then recovered after , as the cumulative effect of policy reforms began to be felt. Economic production is concentrated in commodities.

In , Uzbekistan was the world's seventh-largest producer and fifth-largest exporter of cotton as well as the seventh largest world producer of gold.

It is also a regionally significant producer of natural gas, coal, copper, oil, silver and uranium. Still, at cotton-harvest time, all students and teachers are mobilized and enslaved as unpaid labour to help in the fields. Facing a multitude of economic challenges upon acquiring independence, the government adopted an evolutionary reform strategy, with an emphasis on state control, reduction of imports and self-sufficiency in energy.

Since , the state-controlled media have repeatedly proclaimed the success of this "Uzbekistan Economic Model" and suggested that it is a unique example of a smooth transition to the market economy while avoiding shock, pauperism and stagnation. The gradualist reform strategy has involved postponing significant macroeconomic and structural reforms. The state in the hands of the bureaucracy has remained a dominant influence in the economy.

Corruption permeates the society and grows more rampant over time: Uzbekistan's Corruption Perception Index was out of countries, whereas in Uzbekistan was th out of countries.

A February report on the country by the International Crisis Group suggests that revenues earned from key exports, especially cotton, gold, corn and increasingly gas, are distributed among a very small circle of the ruling elite, with little or no benefit for the populace at large. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, "the government is hostile to allowing the development of an independent private sector, over which it would have no control".

Thus, the middle class is marginalised economically and, consequently, politically. The economic policies have repelled foreign investment, which is the lowest per capita in the CIS. For years, the largest barrier to foreign companies entering the Uzbekistan market has been the difficulty of converting currency. The Republic of Uzbekistan has its own state symbols - the flag, the emblem, and the anthem sanctioned by law. The Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Article 5.

The flag of our country is a symbol of the sovereignty of the Republic. The national flag of the Republic represents the country internationally when official delegations from Uzbekistan visit foreign countries, as well as at conferences, world exhibition, and sports competitions. The national flag of the Republic is a right-angled colored cloth of three horizontal stripes: blue, white and green. Blue is the symbol of the sky and water, which are the main source of life.

Mainly, blue was the color of the state flag of Temur. There are twelve stars, which stand for spiritual sign. The stars also signify the historical traditions of the Uzbek people, as well as ancient solar calendar. A particular attention to twelve stars in the flag is explained yet by another suggestion, that in the states previously existed in the territory of modern Uzbekistan the scientific thought as "Astrology" had seen its rise.

The stars in the Uzbek flag also point to the ancient roots of local culture, the aspirations of Uzbek people towards perfection and loyalty.

The new state emblem of the Republic of Uzbekistan was created to reflect the many centuries of experience of the Uzbek people. The state emblem of the Republic presents the image of the rising sun over a flourishing valley. Two rivers run through the valley, representing the Syrdarya and Amudarya.

The emblem is bordered by wheat on the right side and branches of cotton with opened cotton bolls on the left side. The eight-angle star is at the top of the emblem, symbolizing the unity and confirmation of the republic. The crescent and star inside the eight-pointed star are the sacred symbols of Islam. The mythical bird Semurg with outstretched wings is placed in the center of the emblem as the symbol of the national Renaissance.

The entire composition aims to express to desire of the Uzbek people for peace, happiness and prosperity. At the bottom of the emblem inscribed the word "Uzbekistan" written in Uzbek on a ribbon in the national colors of the flag.

The law "On national anthem of the Republic of Uzbekistan" was adopted on the December 10, at the 11th session of the Supreme Council of Uzbekistan. My country, sunny and free, salvation to your people, You are a warmhearted companion to the friends Flourish eternally with knowledge and invention, May your fame shine as long as the world exists! Refrain: These golden valleys-dear Uzbekistan, Manly spirit of ancestors is companion to you!

When the great power of people became exuberant You are the country that amazes the world! Belief of generous Uzbek does not die out, Free, young children are a strong wing for you! The torch of independence, guardian of peace, Just motherland be eternally prosperous!

The Republic of Uzbekistan is located in Central Asia. According to natural and geographical conditions Uzbekistan is one of the most favorable regions in Central Asia. The territory of Uzbekistan is a peculiar combination of plains and mountain terrain. Most of the territory of Uzbekistan is occupied by plains about four-fifths of the territory.

One of the main is Turanian plain. The east and northeast of the country are situated spurs of the Tien Shan and the Pamir mountains, here is the highest point in the country m. In the north central part of the territory of Uzbekistan is one of the largest deserts in the world - the Kyzyl Kum, west - the Karakum. The east of the country is dominated by middle and high landforms. To the south and west, they gradually fall and into the plains. Stretch between mountains large cavities: Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Zarafshan, Samarkand are located.

The largest intermountain trough - Ferghana hollow valley - lenght kilometers and width up to kilometers. On three sides of it are surrounded by the mountain ranges and is opened only from the west. On the border with Afghanistan is a vast Amu-Darya basin.